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The History of Bukharian Jews

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Peter Pinkhasov

Among many Jewish communities in the world there is one that for more than 2,000 years has survived and preserved its religion and national identity in almost total isolation from the rest of world Jewry. Jews of that community have developed their own distinct culture, while at the same time adhering to Jewish principles and hoping some day to return to the Land of Israel. These Jews are called Bukharian Jews.

Origins of Bukharian Jews are obscure. No one really knows when first Jews settled in Central Asia. A Bukharian-Jewish legend says that it were Assyrians, who, after conquering Kingdom of Israel (722 BC) deported large part of its population (lost tribes of Israel) to Hador (Bukhara?), but it is very unlikely that Assyria had any rule over parts of Central Asia. Another version is that first Jews came to Central Asia after it was conquered by Persian Empire (about 520 BC). Persian Empire was a unified state with a well-developed and protected system of roads, and that undoubtedly gave Jews opportunity to spread around the country.

Many reasons forced them to immigrate. The Land of Israel was/is very strategically located between the Middle East and Africa, and every time it was conquered (Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Romans) large parts of its population were deported, exiled and sold to slavery. Some served in the armies of conquerors, while others just left for the search of a good life. In the Persian Empire, outside of Israel, large Jewish communities existed in Babylon, Egypt, Asia Minor and Persia. Suza, the capital of Persia, had a sizable and prosperous Jewish population. Jewish sources are scarce from that period, but we find one from Jewish holiday of Purim. The Book of Esther that is read for that occasion tells about how a Jewish woman becomes a wife of Ahashverosh (Xerxes), king of Persia, and saves Jewish nation from a murderous plot of chief minister Haman. On the day that Jews were to be massacred, Jews all over empire attacked and killed their enemies. The Book of Esther points out that Jews in every satrapy attacked their enemies. So it is possible that Jews already lived in cities of Bactria, Sogdiana and Khorezm. In the later years of the Empire, Jews were for some unknown reasons persecuted and in about 360 BC many were deported to Hyrcania (Gorgan) on the Caspian shore, near the Iranian-Turkmen border.

First archeological evidence of Jews in Central Asia goes back to first century BC. In 1954, during excavations in Turkmenistan (Merv, Bairam-Ali), Soviet archeologists found fragments of pottery with Hebrew letters and names. Ancient synagogues were also unearthed. Establishment of Silk Road between China and the West in the second century BC created a new movement of Jews to Central Asia.

The term "Central Asia" didn't exist before English and Russians coined it in the 19th century during the Great Game. The region was constantly conquered and different states arouse from there, and parts of it had different names throughout the history. In ancient times it was known as Bactria, Sogdiana, Khorezm, Davan' (Fergana), Margiana, Parthia and Tocharistan. After Arab conquest the general area was known as Maverannahr (Transoxonia) and Khorasan. During Mongol rule it was called Chagatai Ulus. In succeeding centuries parts of it were called Bukhara, Kokand and Khiva. Russians named it Turkestan and now five states control that ancient land: Uzbekistan, Tadjikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.

The Silk Road existed for 1600 years until it was superseded by sea travel in late 15th century, and during that time Central Asia experienced its greatest period. Bukhara, Samarkand, Termez, Merv and Urghench became great and prosperous cities. Jews played a great role in development of the Silk Road by engaging in trade. Jewish traders, called Radanites, established trading posts along the Silk Road. Many settled in China itself. In Kaifeng, a city in central China, Jewish community has survived up to the middle of 20th century. They built their synagogue in 1163 and lived in total isolation until being discovered by Christian missioners in 18th century. It is thought that first Jews settled in China around 500 AD, and the only way they could get there was by the way of the Silk Road which went through Central Asia, and there is no doubt that Chinese Jews once were a part of Jews of Central Asia.

Up to the Arab conquest, Central Asia had an amalgam of different nations and religions. Buddhism, Hinduism, Zoroastrism, Christianity and Judaism existed side by side. Central Asia was also a safe heaven for persecuted Jews of Iran. Persecution of Jews in neo-Persian Empire (Sassanian Kingdom) began with Yezdigerd III (440-457) and continued during the rein of his son Firuz (458-485). Thousands of Jews were massacred, as was in the case of Jews of Isfahan; Jewish academies in Babylon were closed, and many were killed and expelled. Persecutions continued on and off during the reins of Sassanid kings Kavid and Hormuzd IV. No wonder that when Arabs invaded Persia local Jews welcomed the new comers.

The Arab conquests brought about 90 percent of world's Jewry under their rule. As non-Moslems, Jews were considered "ahl al-dhimma" (the protected people) and their local institutions remained independent. But at the same time discriminatory laws known as the "Terms of Omar" were issued. Jews had to pay special taxes, jizia (the poll-tax) and the kharaj (land-tax), from which Moslems were exempted. Jews were prohibited to wear arms and ride horses, and had to wear clothes different than that of a Moslem. With times new laws were created and some made void, but generally the laws remained the same as in the early Islamic era.

The land-tax made it expensive for Jews to engage in agriculture or to own land, so they almost exclusively turned to commerce and crafts. It wasn't long before Jews controlled economies of Moslem countries. Jewish trade connected the Moslem east with the Christian west, and Jewish traders were often used to head delegations to Europe. Jews were engaged in every profitable profession. There were jewelers, money-changers and money-lenders, dyers, tanners, barbers, butchers, shoemakers, blacksmiths and others. Few became court ministers, financiers and surgeons.

At that time, a major center of Jewish life in Central Asia was Samarkand. In the 12th century, a great Jewish traveler and explorer Benjamin of Tudela wrote that there were as many as 30,000 Jews in that city. Having been far from the Jewish academies of Iraq, some local Jewish scholars began developing their own views on Judaism. Most notable are two of them: Hivi Albalhi from Balkh, and Menachem of Ghazni. They disagreed on some aspects of Judaism with academicians in Iraq. Also should be noted that there were some conversions to Islam and intermarriage with local people.

Mongol invasion in the 13th century and succeeding wars hit hard on Jews of Central Asia, but with the coming to power of Timur or Tamerlane a new period for Jews began. Samarkand, his new capital was still feeling the effects of destruction brought on it by the Mongols so Timur needed skilled craftsmen to rebuild the city and make it a world jewel. From every country that he conquered skilled people were brought and settled in Samarkand. A Bukharian-Jewish legend tells that when Timur conquered Bukhara he took few hundred Jewish families and settled them in Samarkand. Those Jews were given a land to settle on and Timur called the community "Bukharian". Subsequently all Jews in Central Asia became known as Bukharian Jews.

The Empire of Timur proved to be unstable and fell apart soon after his death. In the beginning of the 16th century Central Asia was invaded and conquered by nomadic Uzbek tribes who established strict observance of Islam and Central Asia fell into Dark Age of religious fundamentalism. At the same time the Silk Road lost its importance and soon was lost in sand. Trade had declined and science was forgotten. All this had negative impact on development in Central Asia for the next 300 years.

The events had impacted Bukharian Jews as well. Confined to their own city-quarters they were denied basic rights and many were forced to convert to Islam. Bukharian Jews who continued to practice Judaism in secret became known as "chala". Neither Jews nor Moslems married the "converts" and their lives were often hard. By the middle of the 18th century Bukharian-Jewish communities were in a very bad shape and their existence was threatened. Few Bukharian-Jewish writers, such as Yusuf Yahudi and Ibraghim Ibn Abjil Gheir reflect the hard times in their literary works. The works were written in Bukharian dialect of Tajik/Farsi language. The Bukharian dialect was developed and used by Central Asian Jews. The dialect is a mix of Farsi with Hebrew and, recently, Russian and English. It is written in Hebrew or Cyrillic letters. Some linguists consider it a separate language.

By the middle of the 18th century practically all of Bukharian Jews lived in Bukharian Emirate. Cities with major Jewish populations were Bukhara, Samarkand and Shahrisabs. The rest lived in towns of Zeravshan River valley. Few also lived in Tashkent and Ferghana Valley. From the late seventeen-hundreds Bukharian-Jewish population began to grow as a result of a natural growth and immigration of Jews from Afghanistan, Iran, Turkey, Palestine and even Yemen to Central Asia. Forced conversions and massacres in Meshed in the first half of 19th century made many Jews to leave for Bukhara, Samarkand and Ferghana. Same was with the Jews of Herat in 1854, when invading Persians expelled all of them from the city. Before the Russian conquest Bukharian Jews were living in almost every city and town of Central Asia. By 1865 considerable Bukharian-Jewish populations lived in Kermine, Katta-Kurgan, Karshi, Hissar, Dushanbe, Chardjuy, Merv, Tashkent, Khodjent, Kokand, Margelan, Andijan, Namangan, Osh, Chimkent and Turkestan. But the biggest population growth was in Samarkand. Before 1843 Bukharian Jews lived in four parts/quarters of the city, but soon the need was for more land. Emir Nasrullo Bahadur (1826-1860) granted a permission to sell the land for 10,000 silver tenghe. The new quarter was called Mahallai Yahudien (the Jewish Quarter) and exists to this day. For many years from 1837 to 1878 the leader of Jewish community in Samarkand was Moshe Kalantar. A very respected leader he did much for the good of the Jewish community.

Almost entire trade and economy of Bukharian Emirate was in the hands of Jews. Some Bukharian Jews served the governments of emirs; one of them, Aroni Kandin served as minister of Finances under emir Muzaffaretdin (1865-1885). Bukharian Jewish traders traveled as far as Russia, Western Europe and Palestine. They were also the first in Central Asia to use Western and Russian made goods and clothes. But this prosperity was just a prelude to riches that lay ahead.

Since 1853 Russians were constantly pressing against Central Asian Khanates and in 1865 they took Tashkent. Eight Bukharian Jews took part in a ceremony of official annexation of Tashkent to Russia. Seeing the Russians as their liberators from the tyranny of emir the Bukharian Jews in many ways helped the Russians to advance. When a Russian garrison in Samarkand was surrounded (1868) many Jews joined the Russians and supplied them with food and water. After his defeat the emir was forced to pay a huge indemnity to the victors, and the small community of Bukharian Jews paid a very large percent of it.

The conquest of Central Asia had a big impact on lives of ordinary Jews. Now they were freed from constant wars and excessive taxation. On the contrary, lives of those Jews that still lived under the emir continued to be harsh. They still had to tie a special belt around their waist to show that they are Jews, pay huge taxes, and to come to a palace once a year to be beaten twenty times by a stick or to pay one more tax. Many Jews left Bukharian Emirate and moved to Russian held areas: Samarkand, Tashkent, Perovskiy (Kzyl Orda), Kazalinsk, Aulie-Ata (Djambul) and Skobelev (Ferghana). The large influx of Jews to now newly created Turkestan Region made Russian authorities to worry, and they ordered expulsion of unregistered Jews from some cities. In many cases Jews had paid off the officials and the order wasn't implemented. In general, though, the Russian authorities were more respectful to Bukharian Jews than to European Jews.

Bukharian-Jewish merchants quickly proved to be trustful servants of Russian tsar and few were made his sole representatives in some cities of Central Asia. Moshe Mullokandov (1839-1902), who was one of the richest man in Samarkand was a representative of Emperor Alexander II and served as treasurer of Russian Bank in Samarkand. In short time, from 1876 to 1916 dozens of Bukharian Jews became bankers, real-estate developers, merchants of first, second and third guilds, factory, land and hotel owners. Just to list a few of them: Vadyaev brothers, Potelyahov, Dovidov, Mullokandov, Kalantarov, Kalendarev, Pinhasov, Rubinov, Simhayev, Fuzailov, Iglanov and Yagudaev families and dynasties; the new class of capitalists was known around the world, they traveled and had offices in many Russian and western European cities. A cotton factory in Kokand built by the Vadyaev brothers in the beginning of the 20th century was one of the best in the world. Rich Bukharian Jews built and lived in large luxurious homes which after the Russian revolution were used as schools, offices and museums; they are still standing and in use today in Tashkent, Bukhara, Kokand and Samarkand. Of course not all of Bukharian Jews reached such heights. Just a little more than thirty percent of Bukharians were engaged in commerce, the rest were dyers of silk and craftsmen, while the others worked in the factories owned by the rich Bukharian Jews.